Glossary of Foie Gras Production and Terminology

Gavage: The process of force-feeding ducks or geese by inserting a tube into the esophagus to deliver large quantities of feed. The term comes from French gaver (“to gorge”). Gavage is central to foie gras production and typically involves 2–3 feedings per day of energy-rich corn mash for 12–21 days12. This causes the birds’ livers to enlarge up to 10 times normal size (see hepatic steatosis). According to French law, foie gras is defined as the liver of a duck or goose “fattened by gavage”3. Mulard (Moulard) Duck: A sterile hybrid duck produced by crossing a male Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata) with a female domestic duck (usually Pekin, Anas platyrhynchos). Mulard (or mule) ducks are the preferred breed for foie gras, as they readily undergo liver fattening (males for foie gras, females often for meat)45. They are hardy and calm, combining traits of Muscovy and Pekin ducks. By the 1960s, mulards largely replaced geese in foie gras farming due to their higher feed efficiency and docility during gavage56. Brooder: A heated shelter or enclosure for raising young poultry. In foie gras farms, newly hatched ducklings or goslings spend their first weeks in a brooder house kept warm and safe, until they can regulate body temperature. A brooder provides warmth, bedding, food, and water for the hatchlings7 before they transition to grow-out barns or pasture. Finishing Pen: A pen or enclosure where birds are placed during the final stage of the feeding cycle to be fattened for slaughter. In foie gras production, finishing pens (often small group pens or cages) confine ducks/geese and limit exercise in the 2–3 weeks of force-feeding. This confinement “finishes” the birds by promoting rapid weight gain89. Traditional advice is to keep finishing pens calm and free of disturbance, with just enough space for birds to remain clean but not enough to burn off the fat being added. Palmipeds: A term referring to web-footed birds (from Latin palmipes), i.e. waterfowl like ducks and geese. In French, palmipèdes is commonly used for species farmed for foie gras1011. The foie gras industry often speaks of canards et oies palmipèdes (ducks and geese) and “fat palmipeds” for those being force-fed. Force-Feeding Period: The final fattening stage (typically 12–15 days for ducks, 15–21 days for geese) when birds are fed via gavage. During this period, ducks are usually 11–12 weeks old and kept in restrictive housing. They are fed a progressively increasing ration of corn boiled with fat, via tube, until their liver reaches the legally required minimum weight (≈300 g for duck, 400 g for goose)1213. Free-Range vs. Intensive Phase: Foie gras ducks often have an initial raising phase where they live in barns or pastures with ad libitum feeding until ~8–12 weeks of age. They may have outdoor access to build fitness and a dilated esophagus (“pre-fattening”). This is followed by the intensive gavage phase in confined pens1415. Some farms market “free-range foie gras” where birds roam freely until the force-feeding begins, but French regulations still mandate gavage for authentic foie gras16.

A Mulard (Moulard) duck, the hybrid of a Muscovy drake and Pekin duck, which is the primary breed used in foie gras production17. Muscovy Duck: A large duck species (Cairina moschata) native to Central/South America, also called Barbary duck in France. Muscovy drakes are commonly used to sire hybrid mulards for foie gras. Pure Muscovies have lean meat and are less tolerant of force-feeding stress, so they are now usually crossed with Pekins185. Muscovies have claws on their feet and a caruncled face; they’re known for being less gregarious but their genes contribute to the mulard’s leaner meat. Pekin Duck: The common domestic duck (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus, usually the American or French Pekin) descended from mallards. Pekin ducks (often white-feathered) are the typical female parent for mulards19. They grow fast and have calm temperaments. Pekin traits in mulards make them more docile during gavage and improve foie gras quality5. (Note: “Pekin” is sometimes just called canard commun or common duck in French.) Landes Goose (Grey Goose): A traditional French breed of goose (Anser anser domesticus) renowned for foie gras. Often called the Oie grise des Landes, this grey goose has a natural ability to store fat in the liver, yielding high-quality foie gras1120. Goose foie gras is rarer (about 5% of France’s foie gras21) due to higher cost, but is considered the “foie gras royalty” by some for its refined taste. Another heavy goose breed used is the Toulouse Goose, especially the dewlap Toulouse, bred for rapid weight gain and traditionally used for foie gras and fatty meat2223. Liver (Foie): The organ that is specially fattened to produce foie gras. Under force-feeding, a duck’s liver swells from a normal ~70–80 g to 550–900+ g with >50% fat24. This condition (hepatic steatosis) imparts a rich, buttery texture to the liver. In foie gras labels, foie means liver and gras means fatty – literally “fatty liver.” The liver’s two large lobes are used whole (foie gras entier) or ground into various products (mousses, pâtés, etc.). Esophagus: The gullet or food pipe of the bird. Ducks and geese lack a distinct crop, but have an expandable lower esophagus that serves as a food reservoir25. Farmers often “prepare” the esophagus by preliminary feeding (e.g. green grass or stretch feeds) to dilate it before gavage2627. During gavage, a 15–30 cm tube is inserted into the esophagus to deliver feed; the esophagus can stretch to accommodate ~0.4–0.5 kg of mash per meal28. Care is taken to avoid injuring the esophagus with the tube or excessive volume. Crop (In Birds): A storage pouch in the esophagus of many birds. Geese have a small crop; ducks effectively do not have a true crop, but the lower esophagus expands similarly under repeated feeding25. In foie gras husbandry, the term “crop” may refer to that expanded portion (sometimes called a crop-like area27). During the pre-fattening phase, birds may be allowed to eat freely (ad libitum) to achieve a “half-fat” state that enlarges the esophagus/crop region in preparation for gavage29. Magret: A French term for the breast fillet of a fattened duck (or goose) raised for foie gras. Magret (literally “lean piece”) specifically refers to the breast from a foie gras duck, which is particularly meaty and flavorful due to the bird’s fattening30. For example, magret de canard is a popular dish of seared duck breast from a gavage-fed duck. (By EU definition, “magret” must come from a foie gras animal30.) The term distinguishes it from ordinary duck breast, as the foie gras duck’s breast is larger with a layer of fat. Hepatic Lobes: The two lobes of the liver. In foie gras production, the term lobes often appears in product descriptions (e.g. foie gras entier uses one or more whole intact lobes31). Producers carefully handle and devein the lobes after slaughter, as their delicate, fat-laden texture can easily bruise or tear.

Hepatic Steatosis: The scientific term for fatty liver disease, which is intentionally induced in foie gras birds. Through overfeeding, large fat globules accumulate in the liver cells far beyond normal levels32. By the end of gavage, a duck’s liver may be 7–10 times its healthy size (averaging ~600–700 g with ~56% fat)24. This extreme steatosis impairs liver function (reduced blood flow, cellular damage)33. If force-feeding continued, the liver degeneration would likely progress to organ failure and death34. Notably, if gavage is stopped early, the condition is partly reversible as the liver can metabolize and reduce the fat over time35. In essence, foie gras is a pathologically fatty liver (a form of hepatic lipidosis), albeit a culinary delicacy created under controlled conditions. Esophagitis: Inflammation of the esophagus. Force-feeding can cause trauma to the esophageal lining from repeated tube insertions and rapid distension. This can lead to lesions, tearing, or infection in the esophagus and throat. Careless gavage may result in bleeding or scarred tissue. Studies have noted esophageal tissue damage in some force-fed birds (though prevalence is not well documented)3637. Signs of esophagitis include difficulty swallowing, pain, or aversion to feeding. Farmers strive to insert the tube gently and at proper depth to minimize such injuries3839, but the risk of esophagitis and even esophageal rupture remains a welfare concern. Aspergillosis: A fungal infection of the respiratory system caused by Aspergillus spores. Ducks and geese in damp, dirty bedding or inhaling moldy feed can develop aspergillosis. It manifests as lesions in the lungs and air sacs, often called “brooder pneumonia” in young birds. Aspergillosis is non-contagious but often fatal if not treated, as it causes difficulty breathing and general weakness40. In foie gras barns, high humidity and corn feed can promote fungal growth, so good ventilation and dry bedding are critical. Outbreaks of aspergillosis have been documented on duck farms, requiring antifungal treatments and culling in severe cases41. Prevention (through hygiene and feed quality) is key, since treatment in large flocks is difficult. Bumblefoot (Pododermatitis): A painful infection of the foot pad in birds, often caused by standing on hard, wet, or abrasive surfaces. In foie gras ducks kept on wire or slatted floors, constant pressure on the feet can create sores that then get infected (usually with Staph bacteria), leading to swollen, abscessed foot pads known as bumblefoot42. Affected ducks may limp or refuse to stand. If untreated, infection can spread to joints and bones, causing chronic pain or lameness42. The condition is exacerbated by heavy body weight and limited exercise during force-feeding. Farmers try to mitigate this by using plastic-coated slats and keeping floors clean, but bumblefoot remains a common issue on foie gras farms43. Treatment involves antibiotics and providing soft, dry footing – not easy in intensive systems. Bumblefoot is a notable welfare concern associated with foie gras housing. Respiratory Distress: Foie gras ducks often experience labored breathing and panting, especially toward the end of the gavage period. Overfeeding raises their metabolic heat production and body fat, which can press on air sacs and lungs44. Birds pant to dissipate heat and increase oxygen intake. This can be compounded by hot weather – heat stress is a leading cause of mortality during force-feeding45. In some cases, force-feeding can also lead to aspiration pneumonia if food is accidentally regurgitated or misdirected into the airway, causing lung infection. Farmers provide cool water (sometimes even alkaline water) at all times to help birds cope46, and in warmer climates may install fans or misting to prevent overheating. Nonetheless, about 2–4% of ducks may die during the gavage period, often from respiratory or heat-related issues, compared to ~0.2% on normal feed47. Fractures and Bone Issues: The combination of rapid weight gain and restricted movement can weaken birds’ bones. In individual cages, ducks cannot exercise, and calcium may be diverted to egg-laying (for any females) or other metabolic needs. As a result, bone fractures (especially leg or wing fractures) sometimes occur during handling or transport to slaughter48. Additionally, a condition analogous to osteoporosis can develop. Long-term force-feeding of geese has been associated with amyloid accumulation in organs49, but its direct effect on bone health is unclear. Farmers sometimes supplement feed with vitamins and minerals to support bone strength, and group pen systems allow a bit more movement to keep muscles and bones conditioned. Diarrhea (“semiliquid feces”): Force-fed ducks often develop watery droppings. The high-starch corn diet, given in large volumes, overwhelms the digestive system, leading to loose, yellow feces that are frequently observed in the pens50. This diarrhea can cause dehydration and dirty the birds’ feathers (since they cannot preen properly in tight cages)51. Good farms provide continuous water to keep birds hydrated46. Diarrhea itself is a symptom of intestinal stress from overfeeding and usually resolves after the gavage stops (or at slaughter). It does, however, contribute to unsanitary conditions and can scald the birds’ skin or feet if they’re constantly in contact with wet feces.

Ad libitum Feeding: A feeding method where birds have free access to feed at all times (“all they want”). In the context of foie gras, ad libitum feeding is used during the growth phase before force-feeding. Young ducks are often fed ad libitum a normal diet for several weeks to grow to a healthy weight15. This contrasts with the restricted, measured feedings during gavage. Some alternative foie gras producers attempt to use ad libitum grain feeding (without force) to induce a more natural liver fattening, but this results in much less fatty livers than true gavage. Generally, ad lib feeding produces a “half-fat” liver at best5229, so it is mainly a preliminary step or used in non-gavage foie gras experiments. Slatted Flooring: A type of housing floor made of spaced slats (wooden or plastic beams) or wire mesh. Slatted floors allow droppings to fall through, keeping ducks cleaner, and they provide footing while reducing labor for cleaning manure. In foie gras barns, ducks in group pens are often on slatted or mesh floors53. However, these floors can cause foot injuries (sores, cuts) because they are hard and birds lack soft bedding54. The European Union’s recommendations state floors should not harm the birds’ feet, but slats remain common. Some farms use rubberized or plastic slats to mitigate foot damage. Wire cage floors were standard in older individual cages, contributing to bumblefoot and sternal sores as noted earlier5355. Modern group housing tries to balance cleanliness with comfort by using wider, smoother slats. Pneumatic Pump: A mechanized feeding device that uses air pressure to rapidly deliver corn mash into the bird’s crop. In large foie gras operations, a pneumatic pump with a flexible hose or tube is inserted down each duck’s throat; when activated, it propels a measured portion of feed in seconds. Mechanized systems can gavage up to 400 ducks per hour per operator56. The pump ensures each bird gets the same amount of feed (typically 300–500 g) and speeds up the process, though the force can increase risk of injury if not carefully calibrated. Earlier methods used a hand-cranked auger (screw) to push feed through the tube57, but pneumatic (or hydraulic) pumps are now common. They often have a trigger or foot pedal so the feeder can use one hand to hold the bird and the other to operate the pump. The use of pneumatic gavage reduces labor but requires skill to avoid overfeeding or choking the bird. Group Housing (Collective Pens): Housing multiple ducks together in a pen during force-feeding, as opposed to individual cages. Group pen systems have been adopted to improve welfare by allowing some freedom of movement and social interaction. Typically 4–6 ducks are kept in a small pen on slatted floor, with adjustable bars to restrain them only during feeding5859. The EU mandated that from 2010 onwards all force-feeding cages must be communal (no new individual cages)60. In practice, group pens give each duck about 0.5 m² of space. Ducks can stand, turn around, and stretch a little, though space is still limited. Group housing reduces physical injuries from confinement (e.g. fewer breast blisters and broken bones) and lets ducks perform minimal natural behaviors like preening each other or moving a step or two6055. However, issues like aggression or competition for water can arise if stocking density is high. “Cage-free foie gras” usually means the farm uses group pen housing instead of individual wire cages. Individual Cages: Formerly the standard in foie gras production, these are small one-duck cages often made of wire. They immobilize the duck completely – typically just slightly bigger than the bird’s body. While efficient for feeding (ducks can’t run away or flap, and one person can feed hundreds quickly), individual cages prevent all normal movement: ducks couldn’t stand fully, turn, or flap61. They often led to severe welfare problems like sores, stiffness, and psychological stress6263. As of 2015, individual cages have been phased out in EU foie gras farms due to ethical concerns, replaced by group pens. Some countries (e.g. France) allowed a transition period for producers to refit farms. Today, individual gavage cages are largely considered inhumane and are illegal in many jurisdictions (and under the European Council recommendations)6460. Feeding Tube (Sonde): The tube inserted into the bird’s esophagus during gavage. It may be made of metal or plastic, about 0.5–1.0 cm in diameter for ducks and longer for geese. Modern systems use a flexible rubber or plastic tube to minimize injury, attached to the pump. The tube length ensures feed is delivered past the windpipe, into the upper esophagus (not directly into the stomach to avoid reflux). Proper technique involves inserting the tube in a swift, gentle motion down the throat. If done incorrectly, it can cause choking or damage. Some farmers lubricate the tube or moisten the feed to ease insertion65 (historically, figs or pellets were moistened to help them go down). The term sonde de gavage is often used in French. A well-trained gavage operator can insert the tube in ~2 seconds and start feed flow immediately; ducks learn to remain relatively still, though they may hiss or struggle initially. Lighting Regimen: While not a term per se, it’s notable that many foie gras barns are kept in near darkness or dim light, especially during the gavage phase66. This is done to keep birds calm and reduce activity (so they don’t burn calories or injure themselves). Low light can also suppress aggression among penned birds. For example, farms might only turn lights up during feeding times. This practice, however, deprives birds of normal day-night patterns and can cause stress or frustration (as waterfowl naturally have strong circadian behaviors). The phrase “élevés en obscurité” (raised in darkness) sometimes appears in critiques of foie gras farming67.

A foie gras terrine garnished with black truffle and asparagus, as served in a fine-dining restaurant68. “Terrine” refers to both the preparation and the dish it’s made in. Foie Gras Entier (Whole Foie Gras): A high-grade product made from one whole liver or large lobes of liver, seasoned and cooked intact. Entier means the lobes remain whole (not emulsified or ground)31. It is usually gently cured with salt, pepper, sometimes a splash of alcohol (e.g. Cognac), then either lightly cooked (mi-cuit) or fully sterilized in a jar/can. When sliced, foie gras entier shows a uniform, creamy texture. According to French standards, “whole foie gras” can contain one or two whole liver lobes and seasoning, with no other fillers31. This is considered the purest form of foie gras, often served as cold slices with toast. Bloc de Foie Gras: A molded, homogeneous preparation made of emulsified fatty liver, akin to a pâté. A bloc is composed of 100% foie gras that has been finely ground, seasoned, and reconstituted into a uniform shape69. It’s typically formed into a brick or cylindrical mold and cooked. Bloc de foie gras avec morceaux contains little chunks (“morceaux”) of intact liver mixed in – it must include at least 30% pieces by weight70. The label will indicate if it’s avec morceaux (with pieces). Bloc is slightly lower in prestige than whole foie gras, but good quality bloc can be very smooth and tasty. It’s also more affordable and often used as a spread. By law, products labeled foie gras (without “entier” or “bloc”) must contain >50% actual foie gras liver71. Mi-cuit (Semi-cooked): Literally “half-cooked,” this refers to foie gras that is only lightly cooked/pasteurized, not fully sterilized. Mi-cuit foie gras is heated to about 70°C internal temperature (often in a terrine mold or vacuum bag) – enough to kill pathogens, but preserving a silky texture and fresh flavor7273. It is also called foie gras frais (fresh) or semi-preserved. Mi-cuit foie gras needs refrigeration and has a shorter shelf life (a few weeks) compared to fully cooked canned foie gras which can last months at room temp73. In restaurants, “foie gras mi-cuit” often denotes that the liver was gently cooked (poached or steamed) and served chilled, as opposed to seared hot. Mi-cuit preparations are prized for their delicate, almost butter-like texture and “true” liver taste, which can be lost with higher heat. (E.g. a jar of foie gras de canard mi-cuit might be cooked 30–40 min instead of 2 hours for a conserve74.) Terrine: Foie gras prepared by cooking it in a terrine (earthenware dish) and also the name of the dish itself. A foie gras terrine is made by packing seasoned raw liver (often whole lobes, sometimes with truffles) into a terrine mold, then slow-cooking it in a water bath. It is then cooled and solidified in its fat. The result is a block that can be turned out and sliced. The texture is rich and sliceable. Terrine de foie gras is typically served cold, often with a gelée on top. Unlike “bloc,” a terrine can be either whole foie gras or layered pieces, but is not homogenized (if whole lobes are used). The word terrine implies the traditional rectangular cooking vessel. Britannica succinctly notes that foie gras terrine is liver cooked in a dish, in contrast to torchon which is wrapped in a cloth75. Torchon: A classic preparation where foie gras is cured and shaped in a cloth (“torchon” means dish towel in French). A lobe of foie gras is deveined, seasoned (often with salt, pink curing salt, alcohol), then wrapped tightly in a towel or cheesecloth into a cylindrical shape. It is poached gently (or sometimes just cured and hung) in this form76. The result is a log of foie gras with a uniform, smooth texture. Torchon is usually served in medallion slices. The cloth wrapping method gives it a rustic cylindrical appearance. It is a form of mi-cuit – lightly cooked, needing refrigeration. Foie gras au torchon has become synonymous with an elegant cold appetizer. (Modern chefs sometimes vacuum seal foie gras to simulate a torchon and sous-vide it, but traditionalists use actual cloth.) The name comes directly from the French word for towel7778. Pâté de Foie Gras: A general term for a spreadable preparation containing foie gras. Under French regulations, pâté de foie gras must contain at least 50% foie gras71. The remaining content might be other liver (duck or chicken liver), meats, or fillers. For example, classic Strasbourg pies (Pâté de foie gras de Strasbourg) blended goose foie gras with other meats in a pastry crust. In common usage, pâté implies a mixture ground to a smooth paste. Many canned foie gras products labeled pâté are actually bloc foie gras or parfait by law. In English, people often say “foie gras pâté” to mean any smooth foie gras spread. The key is that pâté is not pure foie gras – it’s a compound (often 50–75% foie gras, plus fat, seasonings, etc.)79. It’s typically cheaper and used as a spread on bread or toast. Still, high-end versions can be delicious; e.g., a mousse de foie gras (a type of pâté) that’s airy and light. Mousse de Foie Gras: A whipped, airy foie gras preparation that must be at least 50% foie gras by law71. A mousse often includes added cream, egg, or gelatin to give it a lighter, fluffy texture. It’s usually pinkish and comes in a jar or tub, easily spreadable. Mousse is an entry-level foie gras product in terms of price and intensity – the flavor is gentler due to other ingredients and air incorporated. For example, a duck foie gras mousse might be made by blending foie gras with whipped cream, then chilling until firm. By French definition, mousse and pâté are similar in foie gras content (minimum 50%), whereas parfait has more (minimum 75% foie gras)71. Mousse is often served as canapés or used in recipes where a lighter foie gras element is desired. Parfait de Foie Gras: Despite parfait meaning “perfect,” in this context it’s a specific type of foie gras preparation that is very smooth and contains at least 75% foie gras71. A parfait is typically made by emulsifying foie gras with something like foie gras fat, sometimes cream and eggs, then straining for ultimate silkiness. It’s then usually molded (often in a terrine) and chilled. The result is a creamy, firm spread that’s richer in foie gras than a mousse. Think of parfait as a high-foie-gras-content pâté with a custard-like smoothness. It’s often served in ramekins or jars. In some Anglo contexts, “foie gras parfait” refers to a very smooth liver mousse served in restaurants (popularized by chef recipes), which might not strictly meet the French legal definition but implies a luxurious spread. Legally in France, parfait must be >75% foie gras, so it’s higher quality than a standard mousse71. Terrine vs. Parfait vs. Mousse: To clarify the above: A foie gras terrine usually refers to whole or mostly-whole foie gras cooked and served in a terrine dish (often 100% foie gras, just prepared differently from entier). A mousse or parfait is a homogenized spread – the distinction is mainly foie gras percentage and texture. All of these are typically served chilled. None of them should be confused with foie gras entier, which is the whole liver lobe itself either briefly cooked or preserved. Seared Foie Gras: This is a popular restaurant preparation (foie gras poêlé). It’s not a product category but worth noting. A fresh lobe of foie gras (usually duck) is cut into slices (often ~30–50 g each, called escallops) and quickly seared in a hot pan. The exterior caramelizes while the interior is molten. Seared foie gras is usually served immediately, often on brioche or with a fruit compote. Since foie gras is over 80% fat, it renders significantly when cooked; chefs often score the surface to release fat and achieve a crust. This preparation uses foie gras cru (raw liver), not the canned or mi-cuit products above. The glossary of terms would classify this under culinary technique rather than terminology, but it’s a common way foie gras is enjoyed in dishes. Accompaniments: Common pairings and terms include Sauternes, a sweet French wine traditionally served with cold foie gras, and truffles, often added to foie gras terrines for flavor (e.g. foie gras truffé). While not specific “terminology,” one might encounter terms like torchon au Sauternes or bloc truffé 5% (meaning 5% truffle by weight). These indicate gourmet enhancements to foie gras preparations.

Label Rouge: A French quality label meaning “Red Label,” awarded to products of superior quality that meet stringent production standards. Label Rouge foie gras comes from farms that follow higher welfare and quality criteria than the norm. This may include using slower-growing breeds, more spacious housing, longer raising times, and organoleptic (taste) tests of the final product8081. Label Rouge is a certification overseen by the French authorities (INAO). Foie gras marked Label Rouge must not only be of French origin, but also excel in flavor and texture, consistently beating standard products in sensory panels82. For example, Southwest France has a Label Rouge standard for whole duck foie gras, requiring corn feeding (often on whole-grain maize) and certain breed lines, with no bleeding spots in the liver, etc. The Label Rouge logo on foie gras indicates a premium product with traceability and periodic inspections. Protected Geographical Indication (PGI / IGP): An EU designation (Indication Géographique Protégée) that links a product to a region and its traditional know-how. In foie gras, the most famous PGI is Canard à Foie Gras du Sud-Ouest – duck foie gras from Southwest France. Under this PGI, ducks must be born, raised, fattened, and processed in the defined Southwest region and meet specified practices83. The PGI guarantees origin and a baseline of quality: for instance, only mulard ducks, fed on whole maize from the region, etc., are allowed. Other foie gras PGIs include Foie gras d’Alsace (for goose foie gras, historically) and Foie gras du Périgord. The PGI system is similar to appellations for wine – it protects the name and assures consumers of traceability and regional authenticity84. Buying a PGI foie gras (like IGP Sud-Ouest) means the product is entirely made in that region under those rules, which often implies a certain flavor profile and farming tradition. French Law and Definition: French rural code explicitly codifies that “Foie gras is the liver of a duck or goose fattened by gavage.”85. French law also declares foie gras part of France’s protected cultural and gastronomic heritage86. This has practical effects: in France, only force-fed liver can be marketed as “foie gras.” If a liver isn’t gavage-fattened, it cannot legally be called foie gras. Additionally, France has laws around labeling – e.g., products labeled just “foie gras” must meet certain purity standards as discussed (entier, bloc, etc.). The Code Rural (Rural Code) article L654-27-1 is often cited for foie gras. Moreover, France’s stance has been to defend foie gras production in face of EU animal welfare concerns, even as it adapts to new housing standards. Bans on Force-Feeding/Foie Gras: Several countries and localities have outlawed either the production of foie gras, the act of force-feeding, and/or the sale of foie gras. For instance, United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, Denmark, Norway, and others ban force-feeding on welfare grounds (so no domestic production; they may still import foie gras). Israel (once a major goose foie gras producer) banned force-feeding in 200587. Australia, Turkey, and India (ban on imports in India) similarly prohibit either production or import87. In the EU, only five member states continue to allow force-feeding (France, Hungary, Spain, Bulgaria, Belgium – the regions that traditionally produce foie gras)88. Notably, California in the US passed a law prohibiting both the production and sale of foie gras made from force-fed birds, effective 2012 (with legal challenges ongoing)87. Cities like Chicago (briefly) and New York City have attempted sales bans. NYC approved a ban on foie gras sales in 2019, but that was struck down in 2022 by state authorities as overreach89. These bans use language like “no product from a force-fed bird shall be sold.” Producers sometimes challenge them on grounds of commerce or argue that alternative feeding methods could produce “foie gras” without force (though currently gavage is the only method to reach the requisite fat content). The term “force-feeding laws” refers to these statutes; for example, the Council of Europe’s 1999 recommendations state that force-feeding should be forbidden in countries where it’s not already practiced and that birds “shall not be kept in individual cages”64. Animal rights groups continue to lobby for more bans, framing foie gras as incompatible with animal welfare. Thus, foie gras sits at a junction of culinary tradition and evolving law. Animal Welfare Standards: Within producing countries, there are specific regulations: e.g., in France, industry guidelines (often voluntary) for welfare during foie gras production. The EU’s 1998 Scientific Committee report on foie gras led to recommendations like group housing, as mentioned, and limiting the length of the force-feeding period60. “Charte de bonnes pratiques” (charter of good practices) is a term one might see, indicating industry self-regulation commitments (for instance, guaranteeing water access, trained staff, etc.). Label Rouge and PGI standards also include welfare-related conditions (such as minimum space per bird, prohibition of live-plucking of down, etc.)9091. The concept of “five freedoms” is occasionally invoked in discussions, but force-feeding inherently conflicts with several of those freedoms. As such, regulatory focus has been on harm reduction (like better cages) rather than the practice’s elimination in producing countries. Cultural Heritage Status: France in 2006 officially declared foie gras part of the “protected cultural and gastronomic heritage of France”92. This was a symbolic move to strengthen foie gras’s legal standing (for example, against EU-wide bans). It means that, domestically, foie gras is regarded akin to a protected tradition. Hungary similarly regards its goose liver production as a national heritage, terming it a “Hungaricum”93. These designations don’t override welfare laws but provide political justification for continuing the practice under regulation rather than abolition. Labeling Terms: French and EU regulations have precise definitions for labeling foie gras products. We’ve covered entier, bloc, etc. Additional terms include “Sous vide” (if something is vacuum-cooked), “mi-cuit” on a label means keep refrigerated, and “pure foie gras” (implying 100% foie gras content, often used in English marketing for entier or bloc). The term “Parfait” can also appear on French packaging to denote the 75% foie gras product. Meanwhile, countries like the US require “fatty duck liver” labeling if selling foie gras from force-fed ducks (though USDA generally allows “foie gras” as the name, recognizing the product standard). There are also Protected Designation of Origin (PDO/AOP) for certain traditional preparations, like Pâté de Strasburg, but these are less common for foie gras than PGI. Veterinary Inspections: Because foie gras is an organ product, slaughterhouses have specific veterinary checks. An abattoir processing foie gras ducks inspects each liver for pathology. Livers that are too damaged (hemorrhages, fibrosis) are rejected or downgraded. Sometimes terms like “ficelle” (string), referring to vein-like stringy imperfections, or “éveiné” (deveined) appear in processing context. However, these are technical details beyond broad terminology. On labels, you might see “extra” or “grade A” – grading terms indicating top visual quality (uniform color, >400 g weight for duck liver, etc.)94. These relate to trade standards rather than consumer-facing terminology, but a gourmet shop might advertise “Grade A foie gras” for the best lobes (e.g., for searing).

Cage-Free (Foie Gras Context): This term is used by some producers to indicate they no longer use individual cages for force-feeding. “Cage-free” in foie gras usually means ducks are kept in group pens or open collective barns during gavage, rather than isolated in small cages. It does not mean the ducks roam freely during force-feeding – they are still confined, but in a small flock. Since 2010, new individual cages have been banned in Europe, so essentially all EU foie gras is now “cage-free” in the sense of no solitary cages60. However, to animal welfare advocates, “cage-free” foie gras is only a marginal improvement, as the birds are still force-fed and confined in tight groups. Activists sometimes deliberately put “cage-free” in quotes to question how free the birds truly are. On the other hand, farms market it to show compliance with modern standards. (Consumers should note this term is not regulated in foie gras – any producer can claim cage-free if they use pens. Look for certification or descriptions like “élevés en groupe au sol” – raised in group on ground.) Live-Shackle Slaughter: The standard commercial method for slaughtering poultry, including foie gras ducks, which animal advocates often highlight as cruel. Live-shackle slaughter means birds are taken alive, hung upside down by their legs in metal shackles on a moving rail, then stunned (usually via an electric water bath) and immediately throat-cut to bleed out95. For ducks and geese, this process is stressful – the shackling can cause pain (often broken legs if done roughly) and the birds flap violently. There have been campaigns to replace live shackling with gas stunning or other more humane methods. In some jurisdictions (e.g., certain poultry plants in Europe), controlled atmosphere stunning (CAS) is used, where ducks are put to sleep with CO₂ or argon gas before hanging. But many foie gras plants, especially smaller ones, still use traditional shackling because the infrastructure is standard. “Live-shackle” is essentially shorthand for this conventional slaughter process. It is not unique to foie gras – all factory-farmed ducks or chickens typically face it, but it compounds welfare issues for birds already compromised by force-feeding (heavy, possibly with fragile bones). Kosher slaughter of ducks, by contrast, would avoid stunning but still requires immobilization (in Israel, when foie gras was legal, kosher slaughter of geese raised further ethical issues). A positive development: one major U.S. kosher certifier banned live-shackle slaughter for waterfowl after pressure, opting for alternative methods96. In-Ovo Sexing: A technology to determine the sex of poultry embryos inside the egg, so that males or females can be sorted out before hatching. This is relevant to foie gras because only male ducklings are typically used for foie gras production (female mulards do not develop the liver as desired – their livers are smaller and more veined97). Traditionally, day-old female ducklings were culled (often ground up or gassed) as a by-product of foie gras hatcheries98. Animal welfare groups equate this to the culling of male chicks in the egg industry. In-ovo sexing offers a way to avoid hatching and killing the unwanted sex. Remarkably, France’s agriculture minister in 2019 committed to ending the culling of male layer chicks and female ducklings by 2021, pushing for in-ovo sexing adoption99. Companies like Grimaud Frères (a major duck breeder) have since implemented a non-invasive in-ovo sexing method using hyperspectral imaging of the embryo’s eye color around day 9 of incubation100. This Lunix system can reportedly save 30 million female ducklings per year101. Thus, in-ovo sexing has become a buzzword in the foie gras sector for innovation in animal welfare. By detecting and not incubating female eggs, the industry can tout that it no longer kills baby females. Full rollout is ongoing – by early 2021, large-scale hatcheries in France started using it99102. “Ethical Foie Gras” / No-Force-Feeding: These terms are used by some farms and activists to describe foie gras obtained without gavage. One example is so-called “naturally fattened” foie gras from geese that overeat seasonally. The most famous is the Spanish farm of Eduardo Sousa, which produces foie gras by allowing free-range geese to gorge on figs and olives in autumn (mimicking migration fattening) – marketed as foie gras “sans gavage” (without force-feeding). Activists refer to this as cruelty-free foie gras. However, French law won’t allow it to be labeled foie gras, and quantities are tiny. Still, the concept has grabbed attention: “ethical foie gras” even won an award at a food competition in 2006. Some also explore feeding ducks ad libitum with high-energy food so they voluntarily engorge to a degree. These products sometimes go by names like “fatty liver pâté” if they can’t legally be called foie gras. Critics argue that even these methods stress the animals (and yield much less fatty livers, more like pâté). Nevertheless, “gavage-free foie gras” is a term you’ll hear in discussions of the future of the industry. Companies are researching methods like genetic selection for ducks that overeat, or cellular agriculture (lab-grown foie gras). Activists promote these to eventually replace conventional foie gras. It’s worth noting that under French regulations, a “foie gras” must come from a force-fed bird103 – so any truly gavage-free liver couldn’t be sold as foie gras in France without legal change. Faux Gras: A clever name (a play on foie gras) used for vegan or vegetarian alternatives. Faux Gras de Gaia, for example, is a Belgian vegan spread made from plant ingredients like mushrooms, nuts, and aromatic spices, designed to mimic the taste and texture of foie gras. “Faux gras” has become a general term for any faux-foie-gras. Animal welfare organizations like GAIA (Belgium) and FOUR PAWS promote these especially around the holidays as humane options104105. Faux gras typically comes in a tin or jar and has a pâté-like consistency. While obviously not the same as real foie gras, some consumers find them tasty on toast. Another term, “foie fin” (fine liver), has been used for liver products made without force-feeding, such as liver from chickens or geese that is naturally fatty. FOUR PAWS suggests replacing foie gras with faux gras or foie fin for those who want to avoid cruelty106107. Faux gras products often contain truffle oil or yeast extracts to impart the rich umami flavor reminiscent of foie. The market for these is small but growing alongside increasing public awareness. “Stop Gavage” / L214: In France, L214 is a prominent animal rights group (named after a provision in French law about animal cruelty). They run campaigns like Stop Gavage (“stop force-feeding”), which expose conditions inside foie gras farms through undercover videos (often showing frantic ducks, injured birds, and grim slaughter scenes). Activist terminology often highlights concepts like “torture in a tin” (from a famous pamphlet) or calling foie gras “diseased liver”108 to frame it as pathology rather than delicacy. They also reference the Five Freedoms to illustrate how foie gras production violates birds’ freedom from hunger, discomfort, pain, to express normal behavior, etc. While not industry terminology, understanding these phrases is relevant: e.g., activists will mention “force-fed to illness” or compare foie gras to human fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and amyloidosis (some studies noted amyloid protein in force-fed livers49). Knowing these terms helps one navigate literature on the ethics controversy. “Crucified Duck” Imagery: A term sometimes seen in activist literature describing the sight of ducks hung on shackles (appearing like crucifixion) or ducks in cages with outstretched necks. It’s more figurative, but mentions in campaigns aim to shock the public. Similarly, phrases like “concentration camp for ducks” have been used – again not scientific, but reflective of activism rhetoric. Certifications and Welfare Labels: Apart from Label Rouge (discussed above) which has some welfare components, there is interest in third-party welfare certification for foie gras – though currently, certifications like Certified Humane or Global Animal Partnership do not cover foie gras production (since it inherently fails certain humane standards). In 2018, one French producer offered what they called “Ethical Foie Gras” from non-force-fed geese and got attention, but it’s niche. Some retailers label foie gras as “from cage-free ducks” or “humanely raised until gavage,” which are marketing attempts. Activists push for mandatory labeling that foie gras is from force-fed animals, to inform consumers. The term “sonically foie gras” came up jokingly in media for experiments playing music to ducks (to calm them) – a reminder that a wide range of ideas circulate in this contentious space.

Evisceration: The process of removing internal organs (guts) from the bird during slaughter. In foie gras production, evisceration is done carefully to retrieve the liver intact and unblemished. Ducks are typically stunned, bled, then hung on a processing line where they are scalded (to loosen feathers), plucked, and eviscerated. The term “evisceration” specifically refers to the removal of viscera (heart, liver, intestines, etc.)109. The liver is immediately separated and graded. Speed is important for quality: livers are often chilled shortly after evisceration to preserve freshness (sometimes in an ice bath or cooling room, because warm fatty livers can spoil or oxidize). Evisceration for foie gras might be slightly modified – for instance, cutting open the bird carefully to extract the oversized liver without squeezing it. The rest of the carcass is then processed for meat (magret, legs for confit, etc.). Chilling Tunnel: An industrial refrigeration system (often a long chamber or conveyor tunnel) through which poultry carcasses pass to be cooled rapidly after slaughter. In air-chilling systems, ducks are carried by shackles through a cold air tunnel that brings their temperature down to safe levels (under 4°C) within a set time110. Chilling tunnels help prevent bacterial growth and improve meat texture. Foie gras plants may use either cold rooms (batch chilling) or continuous in-line tunnels. The term tunnel implies a continuous process: carcasses move through progressively cooler zones with fans or misting. For foie gras livers specifically, some processors use a chilling tunnel or cold cabinet to cool the livers quickly after grading, sometimes called a “chilling tunnel” for offal. For example, one offal chilling tunnel can process hearts, livers, etc., at high throughput111. Rapid chilling is crucial because warm fatty livers are a perfect medium for bacteria and can melt their fat. Thus, foie gras livers are often vacuum-packed and blast-chilled if not processed immediately. Grading: After slaughter, foie gras livers are graded by quality (Grade A, B, C in the US, or Extra, 1er choix, 2ème choix in France). Grading considers size, color, firmness, and any defects (bruises, bile stains, blood spots). Grade A / Extra: largest (typically >400 g for duck), uniform pale ivory color, no blemishes – ideal for serving whole or searing. Grade B: small blemishes or slightly uneven color, often used for terrines or blocs. Grade C: damaged or very veiny livers, usually used in emulsified products like pâtés or flavored mousse. While not consumer-facing terminology, you might see foie gras marketed as “Grade A lobes” by gourmet shops. Rendering: In processing, rendering refers to melting down animal fat to purify it. Ducks and geese in foie gras production yield a lot of fat – both the subcutaneous fat and the fat surrounding the liver. After evisceration, trimmings like excess skin and fat are collected and rendered to produce duck fat (also called graisse de canard). This is done by slowly heating the fat until it liquefies, then straining out solids. The rendered duck/goose fat is a valuable byproduct, used in cooking (e.g. for confit or frying). Additionally, any carcass parts not used for meat (feathers, offal, bone) may be sent to an industrial renderer to make animal meal or fat for non-food uses. But specifically, when one says “rendering” in a foie gras kitchen context, they usually mean producing the clear fat used to seal jars of foie gras or to confit legs. For example, a recipe might instruct to render duck fat from the fat scraps before cooking the foie or magrets112. In the industry, large-scale rendering facilities might handle hundreds of kilos of duck fat daily, ensuring nothing is wasted. Down Feathers: The soft under-feathers of ducks and geese, used for insulation in bedding and clothing. Down is a by-product of foie gras and duck meat production113. After slaughter and scalding, birds are plucked; the down and feathers are collected, cleaned, and sorted. In some cases, birds are live-plucked during molting seasons, but live plucking is widely condemned and officially only ~1–2% of down is obtained that way (primarily in some Eastern European farms)114115. Most down (98%+) comes from post-mortem plucking114. Since foie gras ducks are slaughtered at about 3 months, their down is mature and high quality. Countries like Hungary and Poland, big down exporters, often source from waterfowl raised for liver or meat116. Animal welfare groups have highlighted that buying down can indirectly support the foie gras industry if that down comes from force-fed geese/ducks117118. In response, some down suppliers adopted certifications (e.g. Responsible Down Standard) to ensure no live-plucking or force-feeding – but the latter is hard to verify simply from down. Textile labeling sometimes mentions if down is from “non-force-fed” sources, but this is voluntary. Economically, feather/down sales can offset farming costs, so it’s an important link in the supply chain. (Interestingly, foie gras geese used to be live-plucked multiple times before slaughter, to maximize down yield – a practice largely stopped in the EU due to welfare regs.) Scalding and Plucking: These are standard steps in processing waterfowl. Scalding involves immersing the bird’s body in hot water (~65–70°C) for a minute or two to loosen feathers. Plucking can be done by machine (rubber finger pluckers) or by hand. Ducks have a lot of tough feathers and a waxy coating, so sometimes an extra step of wax dipping or “dewaxing” is done for geese. These terms are generic in poultry but notable in foie gras because any leftover feather stubs on the skin must be removed if the whole carcass is sold (for magret or whole duck sales). However, many foie gras birds are not sold whole – they’re cut up, so plucking focuses on parts. Still, the down is harvested either way. Chilling Tunnel (for offal): Mentioned earlier, but specifically, foie gras livers often go through a rapid chill. Some facilities have a small tunnel or spiral chiller for livers. More commonly, livers are layered in shallow trays and placed in a cold room or blast chiller immediately. The term “tunnel” might come up in industry manuals describing equipment where products like livers or hearts travel on a belt through a cold chamber119. For example, an offal chilling tunnel might freeze livers to -5°C quickly to facilitate vacuum packing (since slightly frozen livers slice and handle easier). Vacuum Packing: High-end raw foie gras is often vacuum-sealed (sous vide packaging) immediately after chilling, to preserve color and prevent oxidation (fatty livers can quickly turn yellowish and rancid when exposed to air). Vac-packed livers are then shipped chilled to chefs or retailers. If you see the term sous vide foie gras, it could either mean vacuum-packed raw liver, or a mi-cuit foie gras cooked in vacuum. Lairage: A term for holding animals prior to slaughter. In foie gras context, once ducks arrive at the abattoir, they might be given a rest period (lairage) to destress (though in some cases they are slaughtered shortly after arrival because delaying can risk regurgitation of feed). This term is more common in general meat processing; for foie gras ducks, transport and lairage can be particularly stressful because their large livers impair breathing and they are in a fragile state. High mortality can occur if there are delays in slaughter after the last force-feeding, so schedules are tight. Byproducts: Other byproducts include the palmipède fat (rendered, as above), gizzards (often confited as gésiers confits, a delicacy for salads), necks (sometimes stuffed as cou farci with a mixture of foie gras and meat), and wings (less commonly eaten, but can be confit or used for stock). The term magret séché refers to duck breast cured and dried (like duck prosciutto), often from foie gras ducks120 (Label Rouge criteria include confit, magret sec, etc. from the same birds121). Duck stock or duck demi-glace can be made from the carcasses. Blood is usually discarded as there’s no traditional blood dish from foie gras ducks (unlike some places use blood for sausage, but not common with waterfowl). Packaging and Sterilization: Foie gras intended for shelf-stable sale (e.g. canned foie gras entier) is packed in glass jars or tins and sterilized (121°C autoclave) – this is labeled conserve. Semi-cooked products (mi-cuit) are pasteurized at lower temp and often vacuum-packed in plastic or glass – these are labeled semi-conserve and need refrigeration. The terms appertisé (canned) and pasteurisé (pasteurized) sometimes appear on French labels to denote the type of processing. Traceability Codes: EU foie gras products will have a packing code or lot number that can trace back to the producer. E.g., a code like FR 65-XXX-EB might indicate the producer number and département. This is more a consumer tip: if curious, one can identify which region or farm a foie gras came from by these codes. Finally, slaughter regulations require that foie gras birds, like all poultry, are inspected by vets. The term ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection applies. Occasionally, a liver might be condemned (for too many lesions or abscesses); those are not sold as foie gras. If multiple liver issues arise, a vet might investigate diseases in the flock.

Many terms in foie gras production and cuisine are French. Here is a list of common French words and phrases with their English meanings, especially those used in context of foie gras: Foie gras: Literally “fat liver” in French122 – refers to the enlarged liver of a force-fed duck or goose, and by extension dishes made from it. Gavage: French for “force-feeding”123 (from gaver, “to stuff/gorge”). Le gavage is the practice of force-feeding waterfowl to fatten the liver. Canard: Duck. Canard à foie gras specifically means a duck raised for foie gras. Caneton is duckling. Oie: Goose. Oie à foie gras is a goose for foie gras. The plural “oies” sounds like “wah” in French pronunciation124. Mulard (Moulard): The hybrid duck used for foie gras (see Mulard duck above). Pronounced “moo-LARD”125. Barbarie: French name for Muscovy duck (canard de Barbarie). Sometimes used on labels to indicate pure Muscovy (though most foie gras duck products are mulard). Magret: Literally “lean piece” – the breast fillet from a fattened duck30. In English menus often just called “magret (duck breast).” Terrine: An earthenware dish; also a preparation of foie gras cooked in such a dish (see Terrine above). In English, often “foie gras terrine.” Torchon: Means “dish towel.” Foie gras au torchon is wrapped and cooked in a cloth78. Entier: Whole. As in foie gras entier (whole foie gras, using whole lobes)31. Morceaux: Pieces/bits. Avec morceaux = “with pieces” (on a bloc de foie gras label, indicates chunks of liver included)70. Bloc: Block – refers to blended, reconstituted foie gras formed into a block69. Mi-cuit: Semi-cooked (pasteurized)72. Indicates a foie gras product cooked at low temperature, requiring refrigeration. Cru: Raw. Foie gras cru is raw liver (for cooking at home or in restaurants). Pâté: Literally “paste.” In foie gras context, a spread containing foie gras (at least 50%)79. Not to be confused with just any liver pâté – legally implies a certain foie gras content. Mousse: “Foam” in French – a light whipped spread (foie gras mousse, ≥50% foie)126. Parfait: “Perfect” – in foie terms, a very smooth high-foie gras content spread (≥75% foie)71. Also means a type of cold dessert, but with foie gras it’s the spread. Confit: Literally “preserved.” Confit de canard (duck confit) – duck legs cured and slow-cooked in fat127. Gésiers confits – confit gizzards, often from foie gras ducks. Gras: Fat/fatty. E.g., foie gras (fat liver), gras can also refer to rendered fat. Maïs: Corn/maize – primary feed for gavage. One might see gavage au maïs entier (gavage with whole corn). Élevage: Breeding/raising. Élevé en plein air – raised outdoors; élevé en cage – raised in cage. Gavage vs Engraissement: Sometimes used interchangeably, but engraissement means fattening; finition d’engraissement128 refers to the finishing (fattening) phase. Dégorger: To soak/flush out blood. Chefs dégorge raw foie gras in milk or water to remove traces of blood before cooking. Déveiner / Deveinage: Removing veins from the liver (a step in preparing foie gras lobes for terrine). Marinade / Marinée: Some foie gras is mariné (marinated) in alcohol (e.g., Sauternes, Armagnac) and spices before cooking. Assaisonnement: Seasoning. French recipes often simply use salt and pepper; sel de Guérande (sea salt) is common for finishing foie gras. Sauternes: A sweet wine often served or used to marinate foie gras. Pain d’épices: Gingerbread, a traditional accompaniment. Vendange Tardive: “Late harvest” (sweet wine in Alsace) – sometimes recommended pairing, similar to Sauternes. Cochon (pig) and canard together? Not relevant here, skip that. In summary, understanding these French terms enriches one’s grasp of foie gras discussions and labels. For example, a product labeled Foie gras de canard entier du Périgord, mi-cuit translates to “Whole duck foie gras from Périgord, semi-cooked” – indicating a high-quality, region-specific, partially cooked foie gras. Each term in this glossary—from gavage to torchon—illuminates a piece of the intricate world of foie gras, from farm to table. This structured reference provides a comprehensive overview for students, food professionals, or anyone interested in how foie gras is made, regulated, and enjoyed. Sources: Waterfowl farming and welfare reports (Scientific Committee on Animal Health)2960 Veterinary journals and industry guidelines on foie gras production255 French culinary and agricultural code references385 Euro Foie Gras and INAO (France) documentation on product definitions3169 Animal welfare organizations (L214, Four Paws, RSPCA) for activist and welfare terminology42104. 1 32 53 54 56 57 66 67 Microsoft Word - Foie Gras Factsheet Sept 2010 https://www.ciwf.org.uk/media/3818850/foie-gras-factsheet.pdf 2 15 24 25 28 33 34 35 44 45 47 48 50 55 61 The animal health and welfare consequences of foie gras production - PMC https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3595949/ 3 49 65 71 79 85 86 87 88 89 92 94 122 Foie gras - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foie_gras 4 5 6 12 14 19 60 Poultry Meat Processing and Quality https://ubblab.weebly.com/uploads/4/7/4/6/47469791/poultry_meat_processing_and_quality.pdf 7 Brooder house | Poultry Farming, Brooding & Incubation | Britannica https://www.britannica.com/topic/brooder-house 8 9 ogden_images.s3.amazonaws.com https://ogden_images.s3.amazonaws.com/www.iamcountryside.com/images/sites/3/2019/05/13133840/GeeseGuide2019.pdf 10 11 17 18 20 21 Palmipeds https://foiegras-factsandtruth.com/breeding/palmipeds 13 30 31 69 93 109 127 The Foie Gras – Euro Foie Gras : Euro Foie Gras https://eurofoiegras.com/en/the-foie-gras/ 16 95 98 103 108 Unseen Suffering: What Happens Inside the Foie Gras Industry https://thehumaneleague.org/article/foie-gras 22 23 Toulouse (Dewlap) Goose - The Livestock Conservancy https://livestockconservancy.org/toulouse-goose/ 26 27 29 36 37 38 39 46 52 0727.PDF https://food.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2020-12/sci-com_scah_out17_en.pdf 40 Aspergillosis in Pet Ducks - DuckDVM https://duckdvm.com/condition/aspergillosis 41 Aspergillosis In Ducks: How to Prevent & Treat - Hobby Farms https://www.hobbyfarms.com/aspergillosis-in-ducks-how-to-prevent-treat/ 42 62 63 64 foiegras_evidence.qxd https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5c5711b1da50d32f334c8116/t/5c6202e5971a183949ab6917/1549927142037/FoiegrasWelfareEvidence_0.pdf 43 Foie gras - Sentient, The Veterinary Institute for Animal Ethics https://www.sentient.org.au/foie-gras 51 Foie Gras: Cruelty to Ducks and Geese - PETA https://www.peta.org/issues/animals-used-for-food/factory-farming/ducks-geese/foie-gras/ 58 59 File:Collective cage used in the foie gras industry.jpg - Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Collective_cage_used_in_the_foie_gras_industry.jpg 68 File:Course -6 Foie Gras - Terrine with Black Truffle and Asparagus (9246965926).jpg - Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Course_-6_Foie_Gras_-_Terrine_with_Black_Truffle_and_Asparagus_(9246965926).jpg 70 74 Foie gras explained - FrenchEntrée https://www.frenchentree.com/living-in-france/local-life/food-recipes/foie-gras-explained/ 72 Foie mi cuit | Kitchen Journal http://www.kitchenjournal.it/?p=1164&lang=en 73 Pasteurized Foie Gras: Can You Eat It During Pregnancy? 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– RSPCA Knowledgebase https://kb.rspca.org.au/knowledge-base/what-are-the-animal-welfare-concerns-with-the-production-of-down-feathers/ 117 how buying down feathers supports the cruel foie gras industry | peta2 https://www.peta2.com/learn/how-buying-down-feathers-supports-the-cruel-foie-gras-industry/ 118 Everything You Need to Know About Buying Ethically Sourced ... https://www.audubon.org/magazine/everything-you-need-know-about-buying-ethically-sourced-down-products 120 121 [PDF] Cahier des charges du label rouge n° LA 19/02 https://info.agriculture.gouv.fr/boagri/document_administratif-24a8ca6e-d62c-42a2-aa0b-0fea5c51ffc2/telechargement 123 English Translation of “GAVAGE” | Collins French-English Dictionary https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/french-english/gavage 124 125 Foie gras glossary - Gourmet Food World https://www.gourmetfoodworld.com/foie-gras-glossary-15238 126 Types and derivatives of foie gras: what you need to know https://www.foiegrasgourmet.com/en/pages/the-different-foie-gras?srsltid=AfmBOoqHL_dKOB3yU_F_b4pgFa_aB9BOpyr2WR21f5DLNIXnsSVbkYqB 128 Gavage - Etymology, Origin & Meaning https://www.etymonline.com/word/gavage